In the year 1229 CE, Jerusalem—Al-Quds—fell once again into the hands of the Crusaders. This time, however, it wasn’t through a bloody siege or battle, but rather a treaty: the Treaty of Jaffa, signed between the Ayyubid Sultan al-Kamil and Emperor Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire.
But why would the Sultan hand over the city his uncle had bled to liberate? Was this a political bargain to secure his rule, or a strategic ploy to defuse the looming Sixth Crusade? And what were the consequences of this controversial treaty?
Let’s explore the untold story behind this turning point in Islamic history.
Before the Fall: A Fractured Inheritance After Saladin’s Death
Shortly before the death of Sultan Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi in 1193 CE, he divided his realm among his family. The most important cities—including Jerusalem—went to his sons, while the less strategic regions were handed to his brothers and other relatives.
He appointed his son, al-Malik al-Afdal, as his successor and supreme authority over the Ayyubid state. However, al-Afdal lacked the political acumen and leadership skills necessary to rule, leading to internal disputes among his brothers. Power soon became a matter of the sword.
From Al-Afdal to Al-Adil: A Strategic Power Shift
Saladin’s brother, al-Adil, seized the moment. One by one, he deposed Saladin’s sons and took control of the Ayyubid state. He entrusted governance to his own sons: al-Kamil Muhammad in Egypt, al-Mu’azzam ‘Isa in Damascus, and al-Ashraf Musa in Harran, while he himself maintained overarching authority over the dynasty.
Their initial cooperation helped repel the Fifth Crusade—but ambition soon shattered their unity. Al-Mu’azzam began attacking his own kin, aiming to expand his territories. He even seized Hama from his cousin, sparking outrage from his brothers, al-Kamil and al-Ashraf.
Ambition, Betrayal, and the Seeds of Decline
When al-Ashraf feared the rising threat of the Khwarazmians, he appealed to al-Mu’azzam in Damascus for a united front. Instead, al-Mu’azzam imprisoned him and only released him under the condition that he would assist in taking Homs and Hama—and later, Egypt itself—from their brother al-Kamil.
Al-Ashraf, once freed, exposed the entire plan to al-Kamil, deepening the rift among the brothers and weakening the Ayyubid grip on the region. Each began courting external allies: al-Mu’azzam turned to the Khwarazmians, while al-Kamil made overtures to the Crusaders and Emperor Frederick II in a desperate bid to hold his realm together.
Al-Kamil Bargains Jerusalem for Political Survival
Al-Kamil invited Frederick II to the Levant, offering him Jerusalem and other strategic cities once liberated by Saladin in exchange for support against both internal rivals and foreign threats. He dispatched a personal envoy, Prince Fakhr al-Din Yusuf, to negotiate.
At the same time, Pope Gregory IX was demanding a new crusade, but Frederick delayed it. His only motivation to travel east was al-Kamil’s promise of Jerusalem.
When Frederick finally arrived, he found al-Mu’azzam had died, and al-Kamil had secured peace with his brother al-Ashraf. Frederick’s military support was no longer needed—but al-Kamil feared breaking his promise and provoking a new Crusade, especially while still facing threats from the Khwarazmians.
Diplomatic Chess and a Controversial Surrender
Frederick landed in Acre in 1228 CE and sent emissaries with lavish gifts, demanding the promised city. Al-Kamil replied that the offer was contingent upon Frederick aiding him against al-Mu’azzam, which was no longer relevant.
Yet Frederick was cornered. He’d been excommunicated—again—by the Pope. Rumours spread that he had died, and the Papacy was attempting to seize his empire. He couldn’t return empty-handed. With war off the table, diplomacy was his last resort.
He pressed al-Kamil harder, and tensions rose as Frederick advanced toward Jaffa. Al-Kamil feared being surrounded by enemies: his nephew al-Nasir Dawud (son of al-Mu’azzam), the Khwarazmians, and the Crusaders.
Previously, al-Kamil had even offered Jerusalem in exchange for the Crusaders’ withdrawal from Damietta, which they’d seized in the Fifth Crusade—but they had refused.
The Treaty of Jaffa: A City Lost Without a Battle
Eventually, in early 1229 CE, the Treaty of Jaffa was signed. A ten-year truce was declared. Frederick received control of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and all of Sidon.
However, several critical conditions were agreed upon:
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- The walls of Jerusalem were not to be rebuilt.
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- All surrounding villages remained under Muslim control.
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- The Haram al-Sharif—including Masjid al-Aqsa and the Dome of the Rock—remained in Muslim hands.
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- Christians could only enter the Haram for pilgrimage, and Muslims would retain authority over it and continue performing adhan, salah, and all Islamic rituals.
Thus, without a single soldier falling, Frederick achieved what the might of Richard the Lionheart had failed to do.
Al-Kamil even issued an order in Jerusalem for Muslims to evacuate the city and hand it over to the Franks—an act that stunned the Muslim world.
Shockwaves Across the Ummah
The surrender of Al-Quds sparked heartbreak and outrage. The historian al-Maqrizi writes of loud wailing, tears, and cries echoing across the region. Al-Kamil tried to downplay it, saying the churches had been handed over but the mosque remained untouched, and the adhan continued as usual.
Even some Crusaders were displeased. They believed Christian honour demanded that Jerusalem be taken by force—not gifted diplomatically. Many resented that the Muslims retained the rights to Al-Aqsa and the Dome, which they would not have kept if a full Crusade had been launched as the Pope had wanted.
On 17 March 1229 CE, Frederick II entered Jerusalem. The next day, he was crowned “King of Jerusalem” at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, by a Muslim-appointed judge, Shams al-Din of Nablus—sent by al-Kamil to serve him.
Eventually, even the Papacy was forced to acknowledge Frederick’s gains. In 1230, the Treaty of San Germano was signed, lifting his excommunication.
Muslims Reclaim Jerusalem… Again
Sultan al-Kamil passed away in 1238 CE after over two decades of rule, appointing his son al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub as his heir. This angered the other Ayyubid princes, including his brother al-Ashraf Musa.
As for Jerusalem, once the ten-year truce ended, it was reclaimed by the Muslims. Some sources say it was al-Salih Najm al-Din who restored it, aided by Khwarazmian fighters fleeing the Mongols. Others credit al-Nasir Dawud, son of al-Mu’azzam, with the recapture after a 21-day siege.
This paved the way for the preparation of the Seventh Crusade.
